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Competition

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Competition_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Competition (disambiguation)">Competition (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="Compete_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Compete (disambiguation)">Compete (disambiguation)</a>, and <a href="Competitor_(ship)" title="Competitor (ship)">Competitor (ship)</a>.</div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Oneupmanship" redirects here. For Mal Waldron & Steve Lacy album, see <a href="One-Upmanship_(album)" title="One-Upmanship (album)">One-Upmanship (album)</a>.</div>

Competition is a <a href="Rivalry" title="Rivalry">rivalry</a> where two or more parties strive for a common <a href="Goal" title="Goal">goal</a> which cannot be shared: where one's gain is the other's loss (an example of which is a <a href="Zero-sum_game" title="Zero-sum game">zero-sum game</a>).<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Competition can arise between entities such as organisms, individuals, economic and social groups, etc. The rivalry can be over attainment of any exclusive goal, including <a href="Recognition_(sociology)" title="Recognition (sociology)">recognition</a>.

Competition occurs in nature, between living organisms which co-exist in the same <a href="Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a>. Animals compete over water supplies, food, mates, and other <a href="Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">biological resources</a>. <a href="Human" title="Human">Humans</a> usually <a href="Survival_of_the_fittest" title="Survival of the fittest">compete for food and mates</a>, though when these needs are met deep rivalries often arise over the pursuit of <a href="Wealth" title="Wealth">wealth</a>, power, prestige, and <a href="Celebrity" title="Celebrity">fame</a> when in a static, repetitive, or unchanging environment.<a href="#cite_note-:1-2">[2]</a> Competition is a major tenet of <a href="Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economies</a> and business, often associated with business competition as companies are in competition with at least one other firm over the same group of customers. Competition inside a company is usually stimulated with the larger purpose of meeting and reaching higher quality of services or improved products that the company may produce or develop.

Competition is often considered to be the opposite of <a href="Cooperation" title="Cooperation">cooperation</a>; however, in the real world, mixtures of cooperation and competition are the norm.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> In economies, as the philosopher R. G. Collingwood argued "the presence of these two opposites together is essential to an economic system. The parties to an economic action co-operate in competing, like two chess players".<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Optimal strategies to achieve goals are studied in the branch of mathematics known as <a href="Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a>.

Competition has been studied in several fields, including <a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> and <a href="Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>. Social <a href="Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologists</a>, for instance, study the nature of competition. They investigate the natural urge of competition and its circumstances. They also study <a href="Group_dynamics" title="Group dynamics">group dynamics</a>, to detect how competition emerges and what its effects are. <a href="Sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologist">Sociologists</a>, meanwhile, study the effects of competition on society as a whole. Additionally, <a href="Anthropologist" title="Anthropologist">anthropologists</a> study the <a href="History" title="History">history</a> and prehistory of competition in various cultures. They also investigate how competition manifested itself in various <a href="Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a> settings in the past, and how competition has developed over time.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biology_and_ecology">Biology and ecology</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition (biology)</a></div>

Competition within, between, and among species is one of the most important forces in biology, especially in the field of <a href="Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Keddy,_P.A_2001-5">[5]</a>

Competition between members of a species ("intraspecific") for resources such as <a href="Food" title="Food">food</a>, <a href="Water" title="Water">water</a>, <a href="Territory_(animal)" title="Territory (animal)">territory</a>, and <a href="Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> may result in an increase in the frequency of a variant of the species best suited for survival and reproduction until its fixation within a population. However, competition among resources also has a strong tendency for diversification between members of the same species, resulting in coexistence of competitive and non-competitive strategies or cycles between low and high competitiveness. Third parties within a species often favour highly competitive strategies leading to species extinction when environmental conditions are harsh (<a href="Evolutionary_suicide" title="Evolutionary suicide">evolutionary suicide</a>).<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

Competition is also present between species ("interspecific"). When resources are limited, several species may depend on these resources. Thus, each of the species competes with the others to gain access to the resources. As a result, species less suited to compete for the resources may <a href="Extinction" title="Extinction">die out</a> unless they <a href="Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adapt</a> by character dislocation, for instance. According to <a href="Evolutionary_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary theory">evolutionary theory</a>, this competition within and between species for resources plays a significant role in <a href="Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. At shorter time scales, competition is also one of the most important factors controlling diversity in ecological communities, but at larger scales expansion and contraction of ecological space is a much larger factor than competition.<a href="#cite_note-SahneyBentonFerry2010-7">[7]</a> This is illustrated by living plant communities where asymmetric competition and competitive dominance frequently occur.<a href="#cite_note-Keddy,_P.A_2001-5">[5]</a> Multiple examples of symmetric and asymmetric competition also exist for animals.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consumer_competitions_–_games_of_luck_or_skill">Consumer competitions – games of luck or skill</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Game_of_chance" title="Game of chance">Game of chance</a></div>

In Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, competitions or lotto are the equivalent of what are commonly known as <a href="Sweepstakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweepstakes">sweepstakes</a> in the United States. The correct technical name for Australian consumer competitions is a trade promotion lottery or lotto.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>

People that enjoy entering competitions are known as compers.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Competitiveness">Competitiveness</h2></div>

Many <a href="Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosophers</a> and <a href="Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologists</a> have identified a trait in most living organisms which can drive the particular organism to compete. This trait, called competitiveness, is viewed as having a high <a href="Adaptive_value" title="Adaptive value">adaptive value</a>, which coexists along with the urge for survival.<a href="#cite_note-:1-2">[2]</a> Competitiveness, or the inclination to compete, though, has become synonymous with aggressiveness and ambition in the <a href="English_language" title="English language">English language</a>. More advanced <a href="Civilization" title="Civilization">civilizations</a> integrate aggressiveness and competitiveness into their <a href="Social_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social interaction">interactions</a>, as a way to distribute resources and adapt. Many plants compete with neighboring ones for sunlight.

The term also applies to <a href="Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a>. Here, it is a comparative measure of the ability and performance of a firm or sub-sector to sell and produce/supply goods and/or services in a given market. The two academic bodies of thought on the assessment of competitiveness are the Structure Conduct Performance Paradigm and the more contemporary New Empirical Industrial Organisation model. Predicting changes in the competitiveness of business sectors is becoming an integral and explicit step in public policymaking. Within capitalist economic systems, the drive of enterprises is to maintain and improve their own competitiveness.

One-upmanship, also called "one-upsmanship",<a href="#cite_note-Merriam-Webster_one-upmanship-12">[12]</a> is the art or practice of successively outdoing a <a href="Competitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Competitor">competitor</a>. The term was first used in the title of a book by <a href="Stephen_Potter" title="Stephen Potter">Stephen Potter</a>, published in 1952<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> as a follow-up to The Theory and Practice of <a href="Gamesmanship" title="Gamesmanship">Gamesmanship</a> (or the Art of Winning Games without Actually Cheating) (1947), and Lifemanship titles in his series of <a href="Tongue-in-cheek" title="Tongue-in-cheek">tongue-in-cheek</a> <a href="Self-help_book" title="Self-help book">self-help books</a>, and film and television derivatives, that teach various ploys to achieve this. This comic <a href="Satire" title="Satire">satire</a> of <a href="Self-help" title="Self-help">self-help</a> style guides manipulates traditional British conventions for the gamester, all life being a game, who understands that if you're not one-up, you're one-down. Potter's unprincipled principles apply to almost any possession, experience or situation, deriving maximum undeserved rewards and discomfitting the opposition. The 1960 film <a href="School_for_Scoundrels_(1960_film)" title="School for Scoundrels (1960 film)">School for Scoundrels</a> and its <a href="School_for_Scoundrels_(2006_film)" title="School for Scoundrels (2006 film)">2006 remake</a> were satiric portrayals of how to use Potter's ideas.

In that context, the term refers to a satiric course in the <a href="Gambit" title="Gambit">gambits</a> required for the systematic and conscious practice of "creative intimidation", making one's associates feel inferior and thereby gaining the status of being "one-up" on them. Viewed seriously, it is a phenomenon of <a href="Group_dynamics" title="Group dynamics">group dynamics</a> that can have significant effects in the <a href="Management" title="Management">management</a> field: for instance, manifesting in <a href="Office_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Office politics">office politics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Academic_achievement" title="Academic achievement">Academic achievement</a></li>

<li><a href="Brinkmanship" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li>

<li>Competition</li>

<li><a href="Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li>

<li><a href="Dozens_(game)" title="Dozens (game)">Dozens (game)</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_mobility" title="Economic mobility">Economic mobility</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_market" title="Free market">Free market</a></li>

<li><a href="Gaming_the_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaming the system">Gaming the system</a></li>

<li><a href="Identity_performance" title="Identity performance">Identity performance</a></li>

<li><a href="Opportunism" title="Opportunism">Opportunism</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_dilemma" title="Security dilemma">Security dilemma</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">Social mobility</a></li>

<li><a href="Winning_streak" title="Winning streak">Winning streak</a></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSear2022" class="citation journal cs1">Sear, Cynthia (2022-08-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00141844.2022.2114517">"On Becoming Unstuck: Teleoaffective Tactics, Thrills, and the Serial Entrants of Promotional Competitions in Australia"</a>. Ethnos. 89 (4): 573–592. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00141844.2022.2114517">10.1080/00141844.2022.2114517</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0014-1844">0014-1844</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251873459">251873459</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSear2022" class="citation web cs1">Sear, Cynthia (2022-11-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2022/nov/20/its-such-a-rush-the-secret-lives-of-compers">"It's such a rush: the secret lives of compers"</a>. <a href="TheGuardian.com" class="mw-redirect" title="TheGuardian.com">TheGuardian.com</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Merriam-Webster_one-upmanship-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Merriam-Webster_one-upmanship_12-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/one-upmanship">"One-upmanship"</a>. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2021-04-26.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> In full, One-Upmanship: Being Some Account of the Activities and Teachings of the Lifemanship Correspondence College of One-Upness and Games Lifemastery.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVallabhaneni2015" class="citation book cs1">Vallabhaneni, S. Rao (2015). "Organizational Politics". Wiley CIAexcel Exam Review 2015. John Wiley & Sons. p. 326. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-119-09431-9</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/one-upmanship" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:one-upmanship">one-upmanship</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

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</style><div id="Narcissism222" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Narcissism" title="Narcissism">Narcissism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Similar personality concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Egomania" title="Egomania">Egomania</a></li>

<li><a href="Egotism" title="Egotism">Egotism</a></li>

<li><a href="God_complex" title="God complex">God complex</a></li>

<li><a href="Grandiosity" title="Grandiosity">Grandiosity</a></li>

<li><a href="Healthy_narcissism" title="Healthy narcissism">Healthy narcissism</a></li>

<li><a href="Hubris" title="Hubris">Hubris</a></li>

<li><a href="Messiah_complex" title="Messiah complex">Messiah complex</a></li>

<li><a href="Superiority_complex" title="Superiority complex">Superiority complex</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Collective_narcissism" title="Collective narcissism">Collective narcissism</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcissism_in_the_workplace" title="Narcissism in the workplace">In the workplace</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcissistic_leadership" title="Narcissistic leadership">Leadership</a></li>

<li><a href="Me_generation" title="Me generation">Me generation</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcissus_(mythology)" title="Narcissus (mythology)">Narcissus (mythology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcissistic_parent" title="Narcissistic parent">Parents</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pathological narcissism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Narcissistic_personality_disorder" title="Narcissistic personality disorder">Narcissistic personality disorder</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_narcissism" title="History of narcissism">history</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Malignant_narcissism" title="Malignant narcissism">Malignant narcissism</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcissistic_Personality_Inventory" title="Narcissistic Personality Inventory">Narcissistic Personality Inventory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Narcissistic

<ul><li><a href="Narcissistic_injury" title="Narcissistic injury">injury</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcissistic_neurosis" title="Narcissistic neurosis">neurosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcissistic_elation" title="Narcissistic elation">elation</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcissistic_mortification" title="Narcissistic mortification">mortification</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcissistic_supply" title="Narcissistic supply">supply</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcissistic_withdrawal" title="Narcissistic withdrawal">withdrawal</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcissistic_defences" title="Narcissistic defences">defences</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related psychology concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Compensation_(psychology)" title="Compensation (psychology)">Compensation</a></li>

<li><a href="Dark_triad" title="Dark triad">Dark triad</a></li>

<li><a href="Empathy" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Entitlement_(psychology)" title="Entitlement (psychology)">Entitlement</a></li>

<li><a href="Grandiosity" title="Grandiosity">Grandiosity</a></li>

<li><a href="Manipulation_(psychology)" title="Manipulation (psychology)">Manipulation (psychology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Selfishness" title="Selfishness">Selfishness</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> Category</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social">Social</h2></div>

Social competition is the competition for <a href="Social_status" title="Social status">social status</a> or <a href="Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">social power</a>, examples include <a href="Keeping_up_with_the_Joneses" title="Keeping up with the Joneses">keeping up with the Joneses</a>, <a href="Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a> or <a href="Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">male intrasexual competition</a>. Social competition can contribute to <a href="Social_stress" title="Social stress">social stress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-f716-15">[1]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Competition-based_learning" title="Competition-based learning">Competition-based learning</a></div>

Competition is a major factor in education. On a global scale, national education systems, intending to bring out the best in the next generation, encourage competitiveness among students through <a href="Scholarships" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholarships">scholarships</a>. Countries such as England and Singapore have <a href="Special_education" title="Special education">special education</a> programmes which cater for specialist students, prompting charges of <a href="Academic_elitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic elitism">academic elitism</a>. Upon receipt of their academic results, students tend to compare their grades to see who is better. In severe cases, the pressure to perform in some countries is so high that it can result in stigmatization of intellectually deficient students, or even suicide as a consequence of failing the exams. Critics of competition as a motivating factor in education systems, such as <a href="Alfie_Kohn" title="Alfie Kohn">Alfie Kohn</a>, assert that competition actually has a net negative influence on the achievement levels of students, and that it "turns all of us into losers".<a href="#cite_note-16">[2]</a> Economist <a href="Richard_Layard" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Layard">Richard Layard</a> has commented on the harmful effects, stating "people feel that they are under a great deal of pressure. They feel that their main objective in life is to do better than other people. That is certainly what young people are being taught in school every day. And it's not a good basis for a society."<a href="#cite_note-17">[3]</a>

However, other studies such as the <a href="Torrance_Tests_of_Creative_Thinking" title="Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking">Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking</a> show that the effect of competition on students depends on each individual's level of <a href="Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">agency</a>. Students with a high level of agency thrive on competition, are self-motivated, and are willing to risk failure. Compared to their counterparts who are low in agency, these students are more likely to be flexible, adaptable and creative as adults.<a href="#cite_note-18">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[5]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics">Economics</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">Competition (economics)</a></div>

Merriam-Webster gives as one definition of competition (relating to <a href="Business_sector" title="Business sector">business</a>) as "[...] rivalry: such as [...] the effort of two or more parties acting independently to secure the business of a third party by offering the most favorable terms".<a href="#cite_note-20">[6]</a> <a href="Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> in his 1776 book <a href="The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a> and later economists described competition in general as allocating productive <a href="Resource" title="Resource">resources</a> to their most highly valued uses and encouraging <a href="X-inefficiency" title="X-inefficiency">efficiency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[7]</a> Later <a href="Microeconomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Microeconomic theory">microeconomic theory</a> distinguished between <a href="Perfect_competition" title="Perfect competition">perfect competition</a> and <a href="Imperfect_competition" title="Imperfect competition">imperfect competition</a>, concluding that no system of resource allocation is more efficient than <a href="Perfect_competition" title="Perfect competition">perfect competition</a>. Competition, according to the theory, causes commercial firms to develop new products, services and technologies, which would give consumers greater selection and better products. The greater selection typically causes lower prices for the products, compared to what the price would be if there was no competition (<a href="Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopoly</a>) or little competition (<a href="Oligopoly" title="Oligopoly">oligopoly</a>).

However, competition may also lead to wasted (duplicated) effort and to increased <a href="Cost" title="Cost">costs</a> (and prices) in some circumstances. For example, the intense competition for the small number of <a href="Superstar" title="Superstar">top jobs in music and movie-acting</a> leads many aspiring musicians and actors to make substantial investments in training which are not recouped, because only a fraction become successful. Critics have also argued that competition can be destabilizing, particularly competition between certain financial institutions.

Experts have also questioned the constructiveness of competition in profitability. It has been argued that competition-oriented objectives are counterproductive to raising revenues and profitability because they limit the options of strategies for firms as well as their ability to offer innovative responses to changes in the market.<a href="#cite_note-22">[8]</a> In addition, the strong desire to defeat rival firms with competitive prices has the strong possibility of causing <a href="Price_war" title="Price war">price wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[9]</a>

Another distinction appearing in economics is that between competition as an end-state – as in the case of both perfect and imperfect competition – and competition as a process. It is a process of rivalry between firms (or consumers) intensifying selective pressures for improvements. One can restate this as a process of discovery.<a href="#cite_note-24">[10]</a>

Three levels of end-state economic competition have been classified:

<ul><li>The most narrow form is direct competition (also called "category competition" or "brand competition"), where <a href="Product_(business)" title="Product (business)">products</a> which perform the same function compete against each other. For example, one brand of pick-up trucks competes with several other brands of pick-up trucks. Sometimes, two companies are rivals and one adds new products to their line, which leads to the other company distributing the same new things, and in this manner they compete.</li>

<li>The next form is substitute or indirect competition, where products which are close substitutes for one another compete. For example, butter competes with margarine, with mayonnaise and with other various sauces and spreads.</li>

<li>The broadest form of competition is typically called budget competition. Included in this category is anything on which the <a href="Consumer" title="Consumer">consumer</a> might want to spend their available <a href="Income" title="Income">money</a>. For example, a family which has $20,000 available may choose to spend it on many different items, which can all be seen as competing with each other for the family's expenditure. This form of competition is also sometimes described as a competition of "share of wallet".</li></ul>

In addition, companies compete for <a href="Finance" title="Finance">financing</a> on the capital markets (equity or debt) in order to generate the necessary cash for their operations. <a href="Investor" title="Investor">Investor</a> typically consider alternative investment opportunities given their risk profile, and not only look at companies just competing on product (direct competitors). Enlarging the investment universe to include indirect competitors leads to a broader peer universe of comparable, indirectly competing companies.

Competition does not necessarily have to be between companies. For example, business writers sometimes refer to internal competition. This is competition within companies. The idea was first introduced by <a href="Alfred_Sloan" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Sloan">Alfred Sloan</a> at <a href="General_Motors_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="General Motors Corporation">General Motors</a> in the 1920s. Sloan deliberately created areas of overlap between <a href="Division_(organization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Division (organization)">divisions</a> of the company so that each division would compete with the other divisions. For example, the <a href="Chevrolet" title="Chevrolet">Chevrolet</a> division would compete with the <a href="Pontiac_(automobile)" title="Pontiac (automobile)">Pontiac</a> division for some <a href="Market_segment" class="mw-redirect" title="Market segment">market segments</a>. The competing brands by the same company allowed parts to be designed by one division and shared by several divisions, for example parts designed by Chevrolet would also be used by Pontiac. In 1931 <a href="Procter_%26_Gamble" title="Procter & Gamble">Procter & Gamble</a> initiated a deliberate system of internal brand-versus-brand rivalry. The company was organized around different <a href="Brand" title="Brand">brands</a>, with each brand allocated resources, including a dedicated group of employees willing to champion the brand. Each <a href="Brand_manager" class="mw-redirect" title="Brand manager">brand manager</a> was given responsibility for the success or failure of the brand, and compensated accordingly.

Most businesses also encourage competition between individual employees. An example of this is a contest between sales representatives. The sales representative with the highest sales (or the best improvement in sales) over a period of time would gain benefits from the employer. This is also known as intra-brand competition.

Shalev and Asbjornsen found that success (i.e. the saving resulted) of <a href="Reverse_auction" title="Reverse auction">reverse auctions</a> correlated most closely with competition. The literature widely supported the importance of competition as the primary driver of reverse auctions success.<a href="#cite_note-:0-25">[11]</a> Their findings appear to support that argument, as competition correlated strongly with the reverse auction success, as well as with the number of bidders.<a href="#cite_note-:0-25">[11]</a>

Business and economic competition in most <a href="Country" title="Country">countries</a> is often limited or restricted. Competition often is subject to legal restrictions. For example, competition may be legally prohibited, as in the cases of a <a href="Government_monopoly" class="mw-redirect" title="Government monopoly">government monopoly</a> or of a <a href="Government-granted_monopoly" title="Government-granted monopoly">government-granted monopoly</a>. Governments may institute <a href="Tariffs" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs">tariffs</a>, <a href="Subsidies" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsidies">subsidies</a> or other <a href="Protectionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Protectionist">protectionist</a> measures in order to prevent or reduce competition. Depending on the respective economic policy, pure competition is to a greater or lesser extent regulated by <a href="Competition_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Competition policy">competition policy</a> and <a href="Competition_law" title="Competition law">competition law</a>. Another component of these activities is the discovery process, with instances of higher <a href="Government_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Government regulation">government regulations</a> typically leading to less competitive businesses being launched.<a href="#cite_note-26">[12]</a>

Nicholas Gruen has referred to The Competition Delusion,<a href="#cite_note-27">[13]</a> in which competition is taken to be unambiguously good, even where that competition leaks into the rules of the game. He claims this drives financialisation (the approximate doubling of proportion of economic resources dedicated to finance and to 'rule making and administering' professions such as law, accountancy and auditing.

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></div>

Competition <a href="Law" title="Law">law</a>, known in the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a> as antitrust law, has three main functions:

<ul><li>First, it prohibits agreements aimed to restrict free trading between business entities and their customers. For example, a <a href="Cartel" title="Cartel">cartel</a> of sports shops who together fix football-jersey prices higher than normal is illegal.<a href="#cite_note-28">[14]</a></li>

<li>Second, competition law can ban the existence or abusive behaviour of a firm dominating the market. One case in point could be a software company who through its <a href="Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopoly</a> on computer platforms makes consumers use its media player.<a href="#cite_note-29">[15]</a></li>

<li>Third, to preserve competitive markets, the law supervises the <a href="Mergers_and_acquisitions" title="Mergers and acquisitions">mergers and acquisitions</a> of very large corporations. Competition authorities could for instance require that a large packaging company give plastic bottle <a href="License" title="License">licenses</a> to competitors before taking over a major <a href="Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">PET</a> producer.<a href="#cite_note-30">[16]</a></li></ul>

In all three cases, competition law aims to protect the <a href="Consumer_welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer welfare">welfare of consumers</a> by ensuring that each business must compete for its share of the <a href="Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Game_theory">Game theory</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></div>

Game theory is "the study of <a href="Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical models</a> of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers."<a href="#cite_note-Myerson-31">[17]</a> Game theory is mainly used in <a href="Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, and <a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, as well as <a href="Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> and <a href="Poker" title="Poker">poker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[18]</a> Originally, it mainly addressed <a href="Zero-sum_game" title="Zero-sum game">zero-sum games</a>, in which one person's gains result in losses for the other participants.

Game theory is a major method used in <a href="Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical economics</a> and business for <a href="Economic_model" title="Economic model">modeling</a> competing behaviors of interacting <a href="Agent_(economics)" title="Agent (economics)">agents</a>.<a href="#cite_note-r1-33">[19]</a> Applications include a wide array of economic phenomena and approaches, such as <a href="Auction" title="Auction">auctions</a>, <a href="Bargaining" title="Bargaining">bargaining</a>, <a href="Mergers_%26_acquisitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mergers & acquisitions">mergers & acquisitions</a> pricing,<a href="#cite_note-GT-A-E-00-34">[20]</a> <a href="Fair_division" title="Fair division">fair division</a>, <a href="Duopoly" title="Duopoly">duopolies</a>, <a href="Oligopoly" title="Oligopoly">oligopolies</a>, <a href="Social_network" title="Social network">social network</a> formation, <a href="Agent-based_computational_economics" title="Agent-based computational economics">agent-based computational economics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-r2-35">[21]</a> <a href="General_equilibrium" class="mw-redirect" title="General equilibrium">general equilibrium</a>, <a href="Mechanism_design" title="Mechanism design">mechanism design</a>,<a href="#cite_note-r3-36">[22]</a> and <a href="Voting_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting system">voting systems</a>;<a href="#cite_note-r4-37">[23]</a> and across such broad areas as <a href="Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">experimental economics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-r5-38">[24]</a> <a href="Behavioral_game_theory" title="Behavioral game theory">behavioral economics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-r6-39">[25]</a> <a href="Information_economics" title="Information economics">information economics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-r7-40">[26]</a> <a href="Industrial_organization" title="Industrial organization">industrial organization</a>,<a href="#cite_note-r8-41">[27]</a> and <a href="Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-r9-42">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-r10-43">[29]</a>

This research usually focuses on particular sets of strategies known as <a href="Solution_concept" title="Solution concept">"solution concepts" or "equilibria"</a>. A common assumption is that players act rationally. In non-cooperative games, the most famous of these is the <a href="Nash_equilibrium" title="Nash equilibrium">Nash equilibrium</a>. A set of strategies is a Nash equilibrium if each represents a best response to the other strategies. If all the players are playing the strategies in a Nash equilibrium, they have no unilateral incentive to deviate, since their strategy is the best they can do given what others are doing.<a href="#cite_note-GT-F-R-09-44">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-GT-F-R-10-45">[31]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2></div>

<a href="Margaret_Heffernan" title="Margaret Heffernan">Margaret Heffernan</a>'s study, A Bigger Prize,<a href="#cite_note-46">[32]</a>

examines the perils and disadvantages of competition in (for example) biology, families, sport, education, commerce and the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-47">[33]</a>

<a href="Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> insisted that "the capitalist system fosters competition and egoism in all its members and thoroughly undermines all genuine forms of community".<a href="#cite_note-48">[34]</a>

It promotes a "climate of competitive egoism and individualism", with competition for jobs and competition between employees; Marx said competition between workers exceeds that demonstrated by company owners.<a href="#cite_note-allenb-49">[35]</a> He also points out that competition separates individuals from one another and while concentration of workers and development of better communication alleviate this, they are not a decision.<a href="#cite_note-allenb-49">[35]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mahatma_Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</h3></div>

<a href="Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a> speaks of egoistic competition.<a href="#cite_note-Gandhi-50">[36]</a> For him, such qualities glorified and/or left unbridled, can lead to violence, conflict, discord and destructiveness. For Gandhi, competition comes from the ego, and therefore society must be based on mutual love, cooperation and sacrifice for the well-being of humanity.<a href="#cite_note-Gandhi-50">[36]</a> In the society desired by Gandhi, each individual will cooperate and serve for the welfare of others and people will share each other's joys, sorrows and achievements as a norm of a social life. For him, in a non-violent society, competition does not have a place and this should become realized with more people making the personal choice to have fewer tendencies toward egoism and selfishness.<a href="#cite_note-Gandhi-50">[36]</a>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/competition" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:competition">competition</a> or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/competitor" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:competitor">competitor</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Competition" class="extiw external" title="q:Special:Search/Competition">Competition</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<li><a href="Asymmetric_competition" title="Asymmetric competition">Asymmetric competition</a></li>

<li><a href="Competition_regulator" title="Competition regulator">Competition regulator</a></li>

<li><a href="Competitor_analysis" title="Competitor analysis">Competitor analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Cooperation" title="Cooperation">Cooperation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_model_of_competition" title="Ecological model of competition">Ecological model of competition</a></li>

<li><a href="Monopolistic_competition" title="Monopolistic competition">Monopolistic competition</a></li>

<li><a href="Prisoner's_dilemma" title="Prisoner's dilemma">Prisoner's dilemma</a></li>

<li><a href="Student_competitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Student competitions">Student competitions</a></li>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References_2">References</h2></div>

<li id="cite_note-f716-15"><a href="#cite_ref-f716_15-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGilbert2001" class="citation journal cs1">Gilbert, Paul (2001). "Evolution and Social Anxiety". Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 24 (4): 723–751. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0193-953X%2805%2970260-4">10.1016/S0193-953X(05)70260-4</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11723630">11723630</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKohn1986" class="citation book cs1">Kohn, Alfie (1986). No contest : the case against competition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-395-63125-6</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1007073234">1007073234</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSalitto2011" class="citation news cs1">Salitto, David (12 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-13052639">"What really makes us happy?"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220302213504/https://www.bbc.com/news/av/uk-13052639">Archived</a> from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 2022-09-11.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFContiPicarielloCollins2001" class="citation journal cs1">Conti, Regina; Picariello, Martha; Collins, Mary (December 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223760263">"The impact of competition on intrinsic motivation and creativity: Considering gender, gender segregation and gender role orientation"</a>. Personality and Individual Differences. 31 (8): 1273–1289. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0191-8869%2800%2900217-8">10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00217-8</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFEisenbergThompson2012" class="citation journal cs1">Eisenberg, Jacob; Thompson, William Forde (16 April 2012). "The Effects of Competition on Improvisers' Motivation, Stress, and Creative Performance". Creativity Research Journal. 23 (2): 129–136. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10400419.2011.571185">10.1080/10400419.2011.571185</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1040-0419">1040-0419</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144893872">144893872</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Compare: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://m-w.com/dictionary/competition">Definition of competition</a> - "competition [...] 1 : the act or process of competing : rivalry: such as [...] a : the effort of two or more parties acting independently to secure the business of a third party by offering the most favorable terms "

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a href="George_J._Stigler" class="mw-redirect" title="George J. Stigler">George J. Stigler</a> (<a href="The_New_Palgrave%3A_A_Dictionary_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics">[1987]</a> 2008). "competition," <a href="The_New_Palgrave_Dictionary_of_Economics" title="The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics">The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000261&q=competition&topicid=&result_number=6">Abstract.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150215032134/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000261&q=competition&topicid=&result_number=6">Archived</a> 2015-02-15 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJ._Scott_ArmstrongFred_Collopy1994" class="citation journal cs1">J. Scott Armstrong; Fred Collopy (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100622023252/http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/documents/research/CompOrientPDF%2011-27%20(2).pdf">"The Profitability of Winning"</a> (PDF). Chief Executive: 61–63. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/documents/research/CompOrientPDF%2011-27%20%282%29.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2010-06-22. Retrieved 2011-12-06. <q>A 1996 review of the evidence, summarized in this paper, found that competitor-oriented objectives reduced profitability. We describe new evidence from 12 studies, one of which is introduced in this paper. The new evidence supports the conclusion that competitor-oriented objectives are harmful, especially when managers receive information about competitors' market shares.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJ._Scott_ArmstrongKesten_C._Greene2007" class="citation journal cs1">J. Scott Armstrong; Kesten C. Greene (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ijb.cyut.edu.tw/var/file/10/1010/img/853/V121-6.pdf">"Competitor-oriented Objectives: The Myth of Market Share"</a> (PDF). International Journal of Business. 12 (1): 116–34. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1083-4346">1083-4346</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220911045115/https://ijb.cyut.edu.tw/var/file/10/1010/img/853/V121-6.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 11 September 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBlaug2001" class="citation journal cs1">Blaug, Mark (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1023/a:1011160622792">"Is Competition Such a Good Thing? Static Efficiency versus Dynamic Efficiency"</a>. Review of Industrial Organization. 19 (1): 37–48. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2Fa%3A1011160622792">10.1023/a:1011160622792</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0889-938X">0889-938X</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154441911">154441911</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_25-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFShalevAsbjornsen2010" class="citation journal cs1">Shalev, Moshe Eitan; Asbjornsen, Stee (2010-03-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1727409">"Electronic Reverse Auctions and the Public Sector – Factors of Success"</a>. Journal of Public Procurement. 10 (3). Rochester, NY: 428–452. <a href="SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1727409">1727409</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKirzner1982" class="citation journal cs1">Kirzner, Israel M. (30 September 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/pa018.pdf">"Competition, Regulation, and the Market Process: An "Austrian" Perspective"</a> (PDF). Cato Institute Policy Analysis (18). Cato Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190802170609/https://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/pa018.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2 August 2019.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGruen2020" class="citation journal cs1">Gruen, Nicholas (February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.griffithreview.com/articles/trust-competition-delusion-gruen/">"Trust and the competition delusion"</a>. Griffith Review. 67. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781925773804</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <cite>JJB Sports PLC v Office of Fair Trading</cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.catribunal.org.uk/cases/10221103-jjb-sports-plc"> 1022/1/1/03</a> (CAT 1 October 2003).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> In the E.U. side of the saga, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2009-02/cp070063en.pdf">Case T-201/04</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220210183724/https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2009-02/cp070063en.pdf">Archived</a> 2022-02-10 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Microsoft v. Commission Order, [revised] 17 September 2007

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <cite>Commission of the European Communities v Tetra Laval BV</cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A62003CJ0012"> European Court Reports Case C-12/03 P</a> (EU Court of Justice 15 February 2005).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Myerson-31"><a href="#cite_ref-Myerson_31-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMyerson1997" class="citation book cs1">Myerson, Roger B. (1997). Game Theory: Analysis of Conflict. Harvard University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780674341166</bdi>.</cite> p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E8WQFRCsNr0C&pg=PA1">1</a>. Chapter-preview links, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E8WQFRCsNr0C&pg=PR7">vii–xi</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFChabris2013" class="citation news cs1">Chabris, Christopher (26 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323610704578625812355516182">"The Science of Winning Poker"</a>. <a href="The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a>. Retrieved 11 September 2022.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-r1-33"><a href="#cite_ref-r1_33-0">^</a> • At <a href="JEL_classification_codes#Mathematical_and_quantitative_methods_JEL:_C_Subcategories" class="mw-redirect" title="JEL classification codes">JEL:C7</a> of the <a href="Journal_of_Economic_Literature" title="Journal of Economic Literature">Journal of Economic Literature</a> classification codes.    • <a href="Robert_Aumann" title="Robert Aumann">R.J. Aumann</a> (2008). "game theory," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_G000007&edition=current&q=game%20theory&topicid=&result_number=4">Abstract.</a>    • <a href="Martin_Shubik" title="Martin Shubik">Martin Shubik</a> (1981). "Game Theory Models and Methods in Political Economy," in <a href="Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Kenneth Arrow</a> and Michael Intriligator, ed., Handbook of Mathematical Economics, v. 1, pp. 285–330 <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1573-4382%2881%2901011-4">10.1016/S1573-4382(81)01011-4</a>.    • <a href="Carl_Shapiro" title="Carl Shapiro">Carl Shapiro</a> (1989). "The Theory of Business Strategy," RAND Journal of Economics, 20(1), pp. 125–37 <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2555656">2555656</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-GT-A-E-00-34"><a href="#cite_ref-GT-A-E-00_34-0">^</a> N. Agarwal and P. Zeephongsekul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mssanz.org.au/modsim2011/D6/agarwal.pdf">Psychological Pricing in Mergers & Acquisitions using Game Theory</a>, School of Mathematics and Geospatial Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne. 19th International Congress on Modelling and Simulation, 12–16 December 2011

</li>

<li id="cite_note-r2-35"><a href="#cite_ref-r2_35-0">^</a> • <a href="Leigh_Tesfatsion" title="Leigh Tesfatsion">Leigh Tesfatsion</a> (2006). "Agent-Based Computational Economics: A Constructive Approach to Economic Theory," ch. 16, Handbook of Computational Economics, v. 2, pp. 831–80 <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1574-0021%2805%2902016-2">10.1016/S1574-0021(05)02016-2</a>.    • <a href="Joseph_Y._Halpern" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Y. Halpern">Joseph Y. Halpern</a> (2008). "computer science and game theory," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000566&edition=current&q=&topicid=&result_number=1">Abstract</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-r3-36"><a href="#cite_ref-r3_36-0">^</a> • From <a href="The_New_Palgrave_Dictionary_of_Economics" title="The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics">The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics</a> (2008), 2nd Edition:      <a href="Roger_B._Myerson" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger B. Myerson">Roger B. Myerson</a>. "mechanism design." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_M000132&edition=current&q=mechanism%20design&topicid=&result_number=3">Abstract</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111123042038/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_M000132&edition=current&q=mechanism%20design&topicid=&result_number=3">Archived</a> November 23, 2011, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.      _____. "revelation principle." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_R000137&edition=current&q=moral&topicid=&result_number=1">Abstract</a>.    • Tuomas Sandholm. "computing in mechanism design." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000563&edition=&field=keyword&q=algorithmic%20mechanism%20design&topicid=&result_number=1">Abstract.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111123042038/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000563&edition=&field=keyword&q=algorithmic%20mechanism%20design&topicid=&result_number=1">Archived</a> November 23, 2011, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>    • <a href="Noam_Nisan" title="Noam Nisan">Noam Nisan</a> and Amir Ronen (2001). "Algorithmic Mechanism Design," Games and Economic Behavior, 35(1–2), pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sandholm/cs15-892F09/Algorithmic%20mechanism%20design.pdf">166–96</a>.    • <a href="Noam_Nisan" title="Noam Nisan">Noam Nisan</a> et al., ed. (2007). Algorithmic Game Theory, Cambridge University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk/asia/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521872829">Description</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120505140924/http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk/asia/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521872829">Archived</a> 2012-05-05 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-r4-37"><a href="#cite_ref-r4_37-0">^</a> Aumann, R. and Hart, S. (eds.) (1994). Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications, v. 2, ch. 30: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1574000505800621">"Voting Procedures"</a> and ch. 31: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1574000505800633">"Social Choice."</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-r5-38"><a href="#cite_ref-r5_38-0">^</a> • <a href="Vernon_L._Smith" title="Vernon L. Smith">Vernon L. Smith</a>, 1992. "Game Theory and Experimental Economics: Beginnings and Early Influences," in E. R. Weintraub, ed., Towards a History of Game Theory, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=9CHY2Gozh1MC&oi=fnd&pg=PA241">241–82</a>.    • _____, 2001. "Experimental Economics," <a href="International_Encyclopedia_of_the_Social_%26_Behavioral_Sciences" title="International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences">International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences</a>, pp. 5100–08. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767022324">Abstract</a> per sect. 1.1 & 2.1.    • <a href="Charles_R._Plott" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles R. Plott">Charles R. Plott</a> and Vernon L. Smith, ed., 2008. Handbook of Experimental Economics Results, v. 1, Elsevier, Part 4, Games, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/handbooks/15740722">ch. 45–66</a>.    • Vincent P. Crawford (1997). "Theory and Experiment in the Analysis of Strategic Interaction," in Advances in Economics and Econometrics: Theory and Applications, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weber.ucsd.edu/~vcrawfor/CrawfordThExp97.pdf">206–42</a>. Cambridge. Reprinted in Colin F. Camerer et al., ed. (2003). Advances in Behavioral Economics, Princeton. 1986–2003 papers. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8437.html">Description</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sA4jJOjwCW4C&pg=PR7">preview</a>, Princeton, ch. 12.    • Martin Shubik, 2002. "Game Theory and Experimental Gaming," in R. Aumann and S. Hart, ed., Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications, Elsevier, v. 3, pp. 2327–51. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1574-0005%2802%2903025-4">10.1016/S1574-0005(02)03025-4</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-r6-39"><a href="#cite_ref-r6_39-0">^</a> From The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (2008), 2nd Edition:    • <a href="Faruk_Gul" class="mw-redirect" title="Faruk Gul">Faruk Gul</a>. "behavioural economics and game theory." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_G000210&q=Behavioral%20economics%20&topicid=&result_number=2">Abstract.</a>    • <a href="Colin_F._Camerer" class="mw-redirect" title="Colin F. Camerer">Colin F. Camerer</a>. "behavioral game theory." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_B000302&q=Behavioral%20economics%20&topicid=&result_number=13">Abstract.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111123034346/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_B000302&q=Behavioral%20economics%20&topicid=&result_number=13">Archived</a> November 23, 2011, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>    • _____ (1997). "Progress in Behavioral Game Theory," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 11(4), p. 172, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://authors.library.caltech.edu/22122/1/2138470%5B1%5D.pdf">167–88</a>.    • _____ (2003). Behavioral Game Theory, Princeton. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7517.html">Description</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cr_Xg7cRvdcC&pg=PR7">preview</a> ([ctrl]+), and ch. 1 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7517.pdf">link</a>.    • _____, <a href="George_Loewenstein" title="George Loewenstein">George Loewenstein</a>, and <a href="Matthew_Rabin" title="Matthew Rabin">Matthew Rabin</a>, ed. (2003). Advances in Behavioral Economics, Princeton. 1986–2003 papers. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8437.html">Description</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sA4jJOjwCW4C&pg=PR7">contents</a>, and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sA4jJOjwCW4C&pg=PR7">preview</a>.    • <a href="Drew_Fudenberg" title="Drew Fudenberg">Drew Fudenberg</a> (2006). "Advancing Beyond Advances in Behavioral Economics," Journal of Economic Literature, 44(3), pp. 694–711 <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30032349">30032349</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-r7-40"><a href="#cite_ref-r7_40-0">^</a> • Eric Rasmusen (2007). Games and Information, 4th ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-EHEP001009.html">Description</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5XEMuJwnBmUC&pg=PR5">chapter-preview.</a>    • <a href="David_M._Kreps" title="David M. Kreps">David M. Kreps</a> (1990). Game Theory and Economic Modelling. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://econpapers.repec.org/bookchap/oxpobooks/9780198283812.htm">Description.</a>    • R. Aumann and S. Hart, ed. (1992, 2002). Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications v. 1, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/handbooks/15740005/1">ch. 3–6</a> and v. 3, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1574000502030060">ch. 43</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-r8-41"><a href="#cite_ref-r8_41-0">^</a> • <a href="Jean_Tirole" title="Jean Tirole">Jean Tirole</a> (1988). The Theory of Industrial Organization, MIT Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HIjsF0XONF8C">Description</a> and chapter-preview links, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HIjsF0XONF8C&pg=PR7">vii–ix</a>, "General Organization," pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HIjsF0XONF8C&dq=find&pg=PA5">5–6</a>, and "Non-Cooperative Game Theory: A User's Guide Manual,' " ch. 11, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HIjsF0XONF8C&dq=find&pg=PA423">423–59</a>.    • Kyle Bagwell and Asher Wolinsky (2002). "Game theory and Industrial Organization," ch. 49, Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications,

v. 3, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1574000502030126">1851–1895</a>.    • Martin Shubik (1959). Strategy and Market Structure: Competition, Oligopoly, and the Theory of Games, Wiley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://devirevues.demo.inist.fr/handle/2042/29380">Description</a> and review <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/40434883">extract</a>.    • _____ with Richard Levitan (1980). Market Structure and Behavior, Harvard University Press. Review <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/2232276">extract</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100315131945/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=8224">Archived</a> 15 March 2010 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

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<li id="cite_note-r9-42"><a href="#cite_ref-r9_42-0">^</a> • Martin Shubik (1981). "Game Theory Models and Methods in Political Economy," in Handbook of Mathematical Economics, v. 1, pp. 285–330 <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1573-4382%2881%2901011-4">10.1016/S1573-4382(81)01011-4</a>.    •_____ (1987). A Game-Theoretic Approach to Political Economy. MIT Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?tid=5086&ttype=2">Description</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629151809/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?tid=5086&ttype=2">Archived</a> 29 June 2011 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

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<li id="cite_note-r10-43"><a href="#cite_ref-r10_43-0">^</a> • Martin Shubik (1978). "Game Theory: Economic Applications," in W. Kruskal and J.M. Tanur, ed., International Encyclopedia of Statistics, v. 2, pp. 372–78.    • Robert Aumann and <a href="Sergiu_Hart" title="Sergiu Hart">Sergiu Hart</a>, ed. Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications (scrollable to chapter-outline or abstract links):

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<li id="cite_note-GT-F-R-09-44"><a href="#cite_ref-GT-F-R-09_44-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.insead.edu/facultyresearch/research/doc.cfm?did=46503">Game-theoretic model to examine the two tradeoffs in the acquisition of information for a careful balancing act</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130524231021/http://www.insead.edu/facultyresearch/research/doc.cfm?did=46503">Archived</a> 2013-05-24 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Research paper <a href="INSEAD" title="INSEAD">INSEAD</a>

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<li id="cite_note-GT-F-R-10-45"><a href="#cite_ref-GT-F-R-10_45-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFChevalier-RoignantTrigeorgis2012" class="citation news cs1">Chevalier-Roignant, Benoît; Trigeorgis, Lenos (15 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130620053305/http://www.europeanfinancialreview.com/?p=4645">"Options Games: Balancing the trade-off between flexibility and commitment"</a>. European Financial Review. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.europeanfinancialreview.com/?p=4645">the original</a> on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2013.</cite>

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<cite id="CITEREFHeffernan2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Margaret_Heffernan" title="Margaret Heffernan">Heffernan, Margaret</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kc3HAQAAQBAJ">A Bigger Prize: Why Competition Isn't Everything and How We Do Better</a>. London: Simon and Schuster. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781471100772</bdi>. Retrieved 2014-03-16.</cite>

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<cite id="CITEREFMorris2014" class="citation news cs1">Morris, Iain (2014-03-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/mar/10/bigger-prize-review-competition-margaret-heffernan">"A Bigger Prize review – the price we pay for competition"</a>. Books. The Guardian (UK ed.). Guardian News and Media Limited. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. Retrieved 2014-03-16. <q>Margaret Heffernan's brave study shows how the competitive instinct can be bad for us in all walks of life, from sport to finance</q></cite>

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<cite id="CITEREFBuchanan1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Allen_Buchanan" title="Allen Buchanan">Buchanan, Allen E.</a> (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y2UEAQAAIAAJ">Marx and Justice: The Radical Critique of Liberalism</a>. Philosophy and Society Series. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Incorporated. p. 95. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780847670390</bdi>. Retrieved 2014-03-16. <q>This problem is greatly exacerbated by Marx's insistence that the capitalist system fosters competition and egoism in all its members and thoroughly undermines all genuine forms of community.</q></cite>

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<cite id="CITEREFBuchanan1982" class="citation book cs1">Buchanan, Allen E. (1982-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j1AOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP1">Marx and Justice: The Radical Critique of Liberalism</a>. Methuen. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-416-33450-0</bdi>.</cite>

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<cite id="CITEREFDayal2006" class="citation book cs1">Dayal, Parmeshwari (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FemHmw5fGQUC&pg=PP1">Gandhian Theory of Social Reconstruction</a>. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-81-269-0603-1</bdi>.</cite>

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</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links_2">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Competitions" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Competitions">Competitions</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul>

</div>

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